Olivia Lum



Singapore Infopedia

by Subramaniam, Shivaranjani

Background

Olivia Lum Ooi Lin (b. 1962, Kampar, Perak, Malaysia  – ) is the founder, group chief executive officer and president of Hyflux Ltd., a leading Singapore-based water treatment company in Asia.1 Her rags-to-riches story is held up by many as an inspiring example of entrepreneurship, perseverance and hard work.2 An orphan raised under adverse conditions in Kampar, a small town in Perak, Malaysia, Lum now heads a multi-million dollar business, and in 2006 and 2008, she was ranked by Forbes as 17th among Singapore’s 40 richest people.3 Her enterprising ways and drive to succeed have earned her accolades such as Singapore's Ernst & Young Entrepreneur of the Year award for Manufacturing and Industrial Products in 2003, and Businessman of the Year at the Singapore Business Awards in 2004  – the first woman to be so honoured.4

Early life
Abandoned at birth at the Kampur District Hospital in Perak, she was adopted by an illiterate widow whom she called “grandmother”.5 The family was living in a terrace house with a garden and a maid until they were forced to move into an attap hut, which had only bare earth for its floor and a zinc top for a roof, as a result of her grandmother's compulsive gambling.6


These dire circumstances, however, tapped into Lum's resourcefulness and shaped her into the successful entrepreneur that she is today.7 At the age of four, Lum began selling her toys to the neighbourhood children in order to make ends meet.8 At nine, she became the sole breadwinner when her grandmother grew too old to work.9 Lum earned money from odd jobs such as selling fruits, sandwiches, ice cream and jeans in school as well as weaving rattan bags and playing the clarinet in funeral processions.10

Move to Singapore
Despite the difficulties at home, Lum was a top student.11 Her schoolmaster at  Pei Yuen Secondary School in Kampar, on seeing her potential, advised her to go to either Singapore or Kuala Lumpur – cities that provided more opportunities for advancement in life.12 So in 1977, Lum made her way to Singapore.13 When she first arrived, Lum bunked in with her former Kampar neighbours in a rented shophouse in Chinatown.14 After rounds of rejections by several schools, she finally gained admittance into Tiong Bahru Secondary School.15 To finance her education and daily living expenses, Lum gave tuition during weekdays and peddled wares on weekends.16


Lum did well for her GCE “O” levels, scoring six As and two Bs, and attained a place at Hwa Chong Junior College.17 She paid her way through her education by giving tuition during weekdays and working as a sales promoter in departmental stores during the weekends.18 She even bought a motorcycle so that she could travel faster to her students' homes.19 During the holidays, Lum waited on tables at the Tivoli Coffeehouse in Orchard Road. During her GCE “A” levels, Lum's grandmother fell ill and passed away.20 This was a period of great personal loss and grief for Lum as she was very close to her grandmother.21

Lum furthered her studies at the National University of Singapore (NUS), majoring in chemistry.22 She supported herself by selling insurance, cosmetics, flower pots and souvenirs, the profits of which were invested in a partnership venture to operate canteens at construction sites in Katong and Bukit Timah.23 The food business did well and by the end of her first year in university, Lum was one of the few students who owned a car.24 In 1986, Lum graduated from NUS with honours in chemistry.25

Early career and setting up of Hyflux
Glaxo Pharmaceuticals was the stepping-stone to Lum's later foray into her own business. Due to the severe recession, she put on hold her entrepreneurial aspirations and worked instead as a laboratory chemist in Glaxo.26 Through this experience, Lum learnt about environmental control, and saw the potential in water treatment and recycling in water-scarce Singapore.27 After all, even a business giant like Glaxo found the treatment of their industrial waste water a challenge, and this prompted Lum to search for an attractive business solution.28 In 1989, she took the plunge, left her well-paying job at Glaxo, and founded Hydrochem, as Hyflux was initially known.29 She sold her condominium and car to raise the S$20,000 capital for the start-up, and opened her office at the Tampines Industrial Park staffed with just one clerk and one technician.30


In the beginning, the company traded in water treatment equipment like water filters and softeners in Singapore, Malaysia and Indonesia.31 Lum would travel up to Batu Pahat, Malaysia, on her motorbike to hawk the products.32 But she knew that in order for the company to grow, she had to go into manufacturing.33 So in 1993, Lum brought membrane technology, then a new technology in water treatment, to Singapore. By1996–97, Hyflux had secured orders from low-value industries like textiles.34 Her first big break came from Siemens Matsushita Components. The contract boosted the company's reputation and business took off from there.35

2001 was a landmark year for Hyflux when it was awarded the first municipal water treatment project in Singapore to supply and install process equipment for the nation’s first NEWater plant in Bedok. In the following year, the Public Utilities Board awarded two projects to Hyflux: design and build the third NEWater plant in Seletar as well as Chestnut Avenue Waterworks, Singapore’s first water plant that uses membrane-based filtration to produce potable water.36

In 2001, Hyflux earned the honour of being the first water treatment company to be listed on SGX SESDAQ (now known as SGX Catalist), and in 2003, the company moved over to the SGX mainboard.37 It has since inked several major deals, including the building of Singapore's first seawater desalination project in Tuas.38

A new benchmark was set in 2011 when Hyflux was awarded  the project to build Singapore’s second and largest seawater desalination project integrating a desalination plant with a power plant.39 In 2013, Hyflux opened Tuaspring Desalination Plant, the second and largest seawater reverse osmosis (SWRO) desalination plant in Singapore.40 In 2015, Hyflux partnered Mitsubishi Heavy Industries to design and build Singapore's sixth waste-to-energy plant.41

Hyflux’s business interests have expanded beyond the shores of Singapore to China, the Middle East, Africa and India. In 2004, Hyflux was awarded the contract to design, build and operate a SWRO desalination plant on a 30-year concession in Tianjin, China.42 In 2012, Hyflux worked with its Japanese partners, Hitachi Ltd and Itochu Corporation, to develop a seawater desalination plant in the Gujarat state of India.43 In 2014, the company secured projects to build a SWRO desalination plant in the Sultanate of Oman  as well as  containerised desalination system in Saudi Arabia.44 More recently in March 2016, Hyflux was awarded a US$500-million project, commissioned by the General Authority for the Suez Canal Economic Zone, to construct the Ain Sokhna Integrated Water and Power plant in Egypt.45

Selected awards and positions held
2002–2004:
Nominated Member of Parliament.46

2002– 2003: Singapore’s representative to the Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation's Business Advisory Council.47
2003: Singapore's Ernst & Young Entrepreneur of the Year award / The International Management Action Awards by SPRING Singapore and the Chartered Management Institute / Most Creative Entrepreneur by Business Times' readers / Her World’s Woman of the Year 2002.48
2004: Businesswoman of the Year by the Singapore Business Awards.49
2004: Global Women Inventors  & Innovators e Network (GWIIN) Award.50
2005: Executive of the Year for Singapore by Asiamoney.51
2006: Winner of the Regional Growth Award by Nihon Keizai Shimbun, 11th Nikkei Asia Prize 2006.52
2010: Ernst & Young Singapore Entrepreneur of the Year award.53
2011: Ernst & Young World Entrepreneur Award / Financial Times ArcelorMittal Boldness in Business Award 2011 for Entrepreneurship.54

Lum is currently a member of the Singapore-Tianjin Economic & Trade Council, Singapore-Jiangsu Cooperation Council, Singapore-Zhejiang Economic & Trade Council, Singapore-Oman Business Council and Singapore Business Federation Council. She also sits on the boards of International Enterprise Singapore, Singapore Technologies Engineering Ltd and the Singapore Mediation Centre.55



Authors
Shivaranjani Subramaniam and Sharon Teng




References
1. Koh, T., et al. (Eds.). (2006). Singapore: The encyclopedia. Singapore: Editions Didier Millet; National Heritage Board, p. 315. (Call no.: RSING 959.57003 SIN-[HIS]); Ooi, S. (2001, October 1). Tapping into liquid gold. Asian Business. Retrieved from Factiva via NLB’s eResources website: http://eresources.nlb.gov.sg/; Overseas Singaporean Portal. (2015, January 12). Water queen shares her success in the water business. Overseas Singaporean Unit. Retrieved 2016, August 7 from Overseas Singaporean Unit website: https://www.overseassingaporean.sg/articles/d/water-queen-shares-her-success-in-the-water-business
2. Leong, C. T. (2001, February 11). From small-town orphan to big bossThe Straits Times, p. 30. Retrieved from NewspaperSG; Long, S. (2003). Grit success II: The guts behind Singapore's top entrepreneurs. Singapore: Prentice Hall, p. 16. (Call no.: RSING 338.0409225957 LON)
3. Doebele, J., Pang, A. L., & Vorasarun, C. (2006, August 25). Singapore's 40 richest. Retrieved 2016, August 7 from Forbes.com website: http://www.forbes.com/global/2006/0904/075.html; Singapore’s 40 richest: #17 Olivia Lum. (2006, August 24). Retrieved  2016, August 7 from Forbes.com website: http://www.forbes.com/lists/2006/79/06singapore_Olivia-Lum_Z077.html; Ng, G. (2006, August 24). Self-made millionaires feature on list of S'pore's wealthiestThe Straits Times, p. 22. Retrieved from NewspaperSG; Nam, S. (2008, August 20) Singapore's 40 richest. Retrieved 2016, August 7 from Forbes.com website: http://www.forbes.com/2008/08/20/singapore-richest-billionaires-biz-singaporerichest08-cz_sn_0820singaporeland.html
4. Koh, T., et al. (Eds.). (2006). Singapore: The encyclopedia. Singapore: Editions Didier Millet in association with National Heritage Board, p. 315. (Call no.: RSING 959.57003 SIN-[HIS]); Singapore Press Holdings. (2005, March 30). Olivia Lum. Retrieved 2016, August 7 from Singapore Press Holdings website: http://www.sph.com.sg/system/assets/63/yznnFyem_hyflux.pdf
5. Wong, W. K. (2003, August 2). Grace under pressureThe Business Times, p. 3; Lum, O. (2007, June 3). Toilet was just a squat panThe New Paper, p. 10. Retrieved from NewspaperSG.
6. Long, S. (2003). Grit success II: The guts behind Singapore's top entrepreneurs. Singapore: Prentice Hall, pp. 18–19. (Call no.: RSING 338.0409225957 LON); Lum, O. (2007, June 3). Toilet was just a squat panThe New Paper, p. 10; Leong, C. T. (2001, February 11). From small-town orphan to big bossThe Straits Times, p. 30. Retrieved from NewspaperSG.
7. Lum, O. (2007, June 3). Toilet was just a squat panThe New Paper, p. 10. Retrieved from NewspaperSG.
8. Long, S. (2003). Grit success II: The guts behind Singapore's top entrepreneurs. Singapore: Prentice Hall, p. 19. (Call no.: RSING 338.0409225957 LON)
9. Lum, O. (2007, June 3). Toilet was just a squat panThe New Paper, p. 10; Wong, W. K. (2003, August 2). Grace under pressureThe Business Times, p. 3. Retrieved from NewspaperSG.
10. Wong, W. K. (2003, August 2). Grace under pressureThe Business Times, p. 3; Leong, C. T. (2001, February 11). From small-town orphan to big bossThe Straits Times, p. 30. Retrieved from NewspaperSG.
11. Singapore Press Holdings. (2005, March 30). Olivia Lum. Retrieved 2016, August 7 from Singapore Press Holdings website: http://www.sph.com.sg/system/assets/63/yznnFyem_hyflux.pdf
12. Long, S. (2003). Grit success II: The guts behind Singapore's top entrepreneurs. Singapore: Prentice Hall, p. 20. (Call no.: RSING 338.0409225957 LON); Lum, O. (2007, June 3). Toilet was just a squat panThe New Paper, p. 10; Wong, W. K. (2003, August 2). Grace under pressureThe Business Times, p. 3; Leong, C. T. (2001, February 11). From small-town orphan to big bossThe Straits Times, p. 30. Retrieved from NewspaperSG; Kampar girl to millionaire CEO. (n.d). Universiti Tunku Abdul Rahman. Retrieved 2016, August 7 from Universiti Tunku Abdul Rahman website: https://www.utar.edu.my/media/UTAR_News/Kampar%20girl%20to%20millionaire%20CEO.pdf
13. Wong, W. K. (2003, August 2). Grace under pressureThe Business Times, p. 3. Retrieved from NewspaperSG.
14. Long, S. (2003). Grit success II: The guts behind Singapore's top entrepreneurs. Singapore: Prentice Hall, p. 20. (Call no.: RSING 338.0409225957 LON)
15. Long, S. (2003). Grit success II: The guts behind Singapore's top entrepreneurs. Singapore: Prentice Hall, p. 20. (Call no.: RSING 338.0409225957 LON); Kampar girl to millionaire CEO. (n.d). Universiti Tunku Abdul Rahman. Retrieved 2016, August 7 from Universiti Tunku Abdul Rahman website: https://www.utar.edu.my/media/UTAR_News/Kampar%20girl%20to%20millionaire%20CEO.pdf
16. Long, S. (2003). Grit success II: The guts behind Singapore's top entrepreneurs. Singapore: Prentice Hall, p. 20. (Call no.: RSING 338.0409225957 LON); Singapore Press Holdings. (2005, March 30). Olivia Lum. Retrieved 2016, August 7 from Singapore Press Holdings website: http://www.sph.com.sg/system/assets/63/yznnFyem_hyflux.pdf
17. Long, S. (2003). Grit success II: The guts behind Singapore's top entrepreneurs. Singapore: Prentice Hall, p. 20. (Call no.: RSING 338.0409225957 LON); Leong, C. T. (2001, February 11). From small-town orphan to big bossThe Straits Times, p. 30. Retrieved from NewspaperSG.
18. People at the peak: The who's who of Singapore. (2003). Singapore: Magazines Incorporated, p. 341. (Call no.: RSING q920.05957 PEO); Leong, C. T. (2001, February 11). From small-town orphan to big bossThe Straits Times, p. 30. Retrieved from NewspaperSG.
19. Leong, C. T. (2001, February 11). From small-town orphan to big bossThe Straits Times, p. 30. Retrieved from NewspaperSG.
20. Long, S. (2003). Grit success II: The guts behind Singapore's top entrepreneurs. Singapore: Prentice Hall, p. 20. (Call no.: RSING 338.0409225957 LON); Leong, C. T. (2001, February 11). From small-town orphan to big bossThe Straits Times, p. 30. Retrieved from NewspaperSG.
21. Long, S. (2003). Grit success II: The guts behind Singapore's top entrepreneurs. Singapore: Prentice Hall, p. 20. (Call no.: RSING 338.0409225957 LON)
22. Long, S. (2003). Grit success II: The guts behind Singapore's top entrepreneurs. Singapore: Prentice Hall, p. 20. (Call no.: RSING 338.0409225957 LON); Singapore Press Holdings. (2005, March 30). Olivia Lum. Retrieved 2016, August 7 from Singapore Press Holdings website: http://www.sph.com.sg/system/assets/63/yznnFyem_hyflux.pdf
23. Wong, W. K. (2003, August 2). Grace under pressureThe Business Times, p. 3; Leong, C. T. (2001, February 11). From small-town orphan to big bossThe Straits Times, p. 30. Retrieved from NewspaperSG.
24. Leong, C. T. (2001, February 11). From small-town orphan to big bossThe Straits Times, p. 30. Retrieved from NewspaperSG.
25. Long, S. (2003). Grit success II: The guts behind Singapore's top entrepreneurs. Singapore: Prentice Hall, p. 20. (Call no.: RSING 338.0409225957 LON)
26. Long, S. (2003). Grit success II: The guts behind Singapore's top entrepreneurs. Singapore: Prentice Hall, p. 20. (Call no.: RSING 338.0409225957 LON); Singapore Press Holdings. (2005, March 30). Olivia Lum. Retrieved 2016, August 7 from Singapore Press Holdings website: http://www.sph.com.sg/system/assets/63/yznnFyem_hyflux.pdf
27. Ooi, S. (2001, October 1). Tapping into liquid gold. Asian Business. Retrieved from Factiva via NLB’s eResources website: http://eresources.nlb.gov.sg/; Singapore Press Holdings. (2005, March 30). Olivia Lum. Retrieved 2016, August 7 from Singapore Press Holdings website: http://www.sph.com.sg/system/assets/63/yznnFyem_hyflux.pdf
28. Lum, O. (2007, June 3). Toilet was just a squat panThe New Paper, p. 10. Retrieved from NewspaperSG; Overseas Singaporean Portal. (2012, August 29). Olivia Lum, Executive Chairman and Group CEO of Hyflux Ltd. Retrieved 2016, August 7 from Overseas Singaporean Unit website: https://www.overseassingaporean.sg/articles/d/olivia-lum-executive-chairman-and-group-ceo-of-hyflux-ltd
29. People at the peak: The who's who of Singapore. (2003). Singapore: Magazines Incorporated, pp. 49, 341. (Call no.: RSING q920.05957 PEO)
30. Long, S. (2003). Grit success II: The guts behind Singapore's top entrepreneurs. Singapore: Prentice Hall, p. 21. (Call no.: RSING 338.0409225957 LON); Singapore Press Holdings. (2005, March 30). Olivia Lum. Retrieved 2016, August 7 from Singapore Press Holdings website: http://www.sph.com.sg/system/assets/63/yznnFyem_hyflux.pdf; Leong, C. T. (2001, February 11). From small-town orphan to big bossThe Straits Times, p. 30. Retrieved from NewspaperSG.
31. Long, S. (2003). Grit success II: The guts behind Singapore's top entrepreneurs. Singapore: Prentice Hall, p. 21. (Call no.: RSING 338.0409225957 LON); Singapore Press Holdings. (2005, March 30). Olivia Lum. Retrieved 2016, August 7 from Singapore Press Holdings website: http://www.sph.com.sg/system/assets/63/yznnFyem_hyflux.pdf
32. Long, S. (2003). Grit success II: The guts behind Singapore's top entrepreneurs. Singapore: Prentice Hall, p. 21. (Call no.: RSING 338.0409225957 LON); Singapore Press Holdings. (2005, March 30). Olivia Lum. Retrieved 2016, August 7 from Singapore Press Holdings website: http://www.sph.com.sg/system/assets/63/yznnFyem_hyflux.pdf
33. Long, S. (2003). Grit success II: The guts behind Singapore's top entrepreneurs. Singapore: Prentice Hall, p. 22. (Call no.: RSING 338.0409225957 LON); Yeoh, O. & Chow, C. (2002, August 12). Cover story on the trail of women CEO. The Edge Singapore. Retrieved from Factiva via NLB’s eResources website: http://eresources.nlb.gov.sg/
34. Ooi, S. (2001, October 1). Tapping into liquid gold. Asian Business. Retrieved from Factiva via NLB’s eResources website: http://eresources.nlb.gov.sg/
35. Yeoh, O., & Chow, C. (2002, August 12). Cover story – on the trail of women CEO. The Edge Singapore. Retrieved from Factiva via NLB’s eResources website: http://eresources.nlb.gov.sg/
36. Hyflux. (2016).  Our heritage. Retrieved 2016, August 7 from Hyflux website: https://www.hyflux.com/about-us/our-heritage/
37. Singapore Press Holdings. (2005, March 30). Olivia Lum. Retrieved 2016, August 7 from Singapore Press Holdings website: http://www.sph.com.sg/system/assets/63/yznnFyem_hyflux.pdf; Hyflux. (2016). Our heritage. Retrieved 2016, August 7 from Hyflux website: https://www.hyflux.com/about-us/our-heritage/
38. Hyflux. (2016). Our heritage. Retrieved 2016, August 7 from Hyflux website: https://www.hyflux.com/about-us/our-heritage/; Singapore Press Holdings. (2005, March 30). Olivia Lum. Retrieved 2016, August 7 from Singapore Press Holdings website: http://www.sph.com.sg/system/assets/63/yznnFyem_hyflux.pdf; Leong, C. T. (2005, September 13). Anew addition in Tuas you can drink to. The Straits Times, p. 1. Retrieved from NewspaperSG.
39. Hyflux. (2016). Our heritage. Retrieved 2016, August 7 from Hyflux website: https://www.hyflux.com/about-us/our-heritage/
40. PUB and Hyflux officially 0pen Singapore's second and largest desalination project. (2013, September 26). Singapore Government News. Retrieved from Factiva via NLB’s eResources website: http://eresources.nlb.gov.sg/
41. Hyflux-led venture to build S$750m waste-to-energy plant in Tuas. (2015, September 16). Today. Retrieved from Factiva via NLB’s eResources website: http://eresources.nlb.gov.sg/
42. Overseas Singaporean Portal. (2012, August 29). Olivia Lum, executive chairman and group CEO of Hyflux Ltd. Retrieved 2016, August 7 from Overseas Singaporean Unit website: https://www.overseassingaporean.sg/articles/d/olivia-lum-executive-chairman-and-group-ceo-of-hyflux-ltd; Hyflux. (2016). Our heritage. Retrieved 2016, August 7 from Hyflux website: https://www.hyflux.com/about-us/our-heritage/
43. Hyflux. (2011).  Delivering innovative solutions, leading the way: Annual report 2011.  Retrieved from Hyflux website: http://investors.hyflux.com/misc/ar2011.pdf
44. Hyflux. (2016).  Our heritage. Retrieved 2016, August 7 from Hyflux website: https://www.hyflux.com/about-us/our-heritage/
45. Hyflux secures US$500m project for desalination, power plant in Egypt. (2016, March 9). Channel NewsAsia. Retrieved from Factiva via NLB’s eResources website: http://eresources.nlb.gov.sg/
46. Koh, T., et al. (Eds.). (2006). Singapore: The encyclopedia. Singapore: Editions Didier Millet in association with National Heritage Board, p. 315. (Call no.: RSING 959.57003 SIN-[HIS]); People at the peak: The who's who of Singapore. (2003). Singapore: Magazines Incorporated, pp. 49, 341. (Call no.: RSING q920.05957 PEO)
47. People at the peak: The who's who of Singapore. (2003). Singapore: Magazines Incorporated, p. 341. (Call no.: RSING q920.05957 PEO); Yeoh, O., & Chow, C. (2002, August 12). Cover story – on the trail of women CEO. The Edge Singapore. Retrieved from Factiva via NLB’s eResources website: http://eresources.nlb.gov.sg/
48. Singapore Press Holdings. (2005, March 30). Olivia Lum. Retrieved 2016, August 7 from Singapore Press Holdings website: http://www.sph.com.sg/system/assets/63/yznnFyem_hyflux.pdf; Olivia Lum named Woman of the Year. (2003, March 4). The Business Times, p. 5; Cheong, S. W. (2003, March 16). You go, girlThe Straits Times, p. 6. Retrieved from NewspaperSG.
49. Koh, T., et al. (Eds.). (2006). Singapore: The encyclopedia. Singapore: Editions Didier Millet in association with National Heritage Board, p. 315. (Call no.: RSING 959.57003 SIN-[HIS])
50. Koh, T., et al. (Eds.). (2006). Singapore: The encyclopedia.  Singapore: Editions Didier Millet in association with National Heritage Board, p. 315. (Call no.: RSING 959.57003 SIN-[HIS]); Singapore Press Holdings. (2005, March 30). Olivia Lum. Retrieved 2016, August 7 from Singapore Press Holdings website: http://www.sph.com.sg/system/assets/63/yznnFyem_hyflux.pdf
51. Koh, T., et al. (Eds.). (2006). Singapore: The encyclopedia. Singapore: Editions Didier Millet in association with  National Heritage Board, p. 315. (Call no.: RSING 959.57003 SIN-[HIS])
52. Ministry of Trade and Industry Singapore. (2013, April 30). New board member appointed at International Enterprise Singapore. Retrieved 2016, August 7 from Ministry of Trade and Industry Singapore website: https://www.mti.gov.sg/NewsRoom/SiteAssets/Pages/New-Board-Member-Appointed-at-International-Enterprise-Singapore/MTI%20press%20release%20on%20board%20change%20IE.pdf
53. Overseas Singaporean Portal. (2012, August 29). Olivia Lum, executive chairman and group CEO of Hyflux Ltd. Retrieved 2016, August 7 from Overseas Singaporean Unit website: https://www.overseassingaporean.sg/articles/d/olivia-lum-executive-chairman-and-group-ceo-of-hyflux-ltd
54. Ministry of Trade and Industry Singapore. (2013, April 30). New board member appointed at International Enterprise Singapore. Retrieved 2016, August 7 from Ministry of Trade and Industry Singapore website: https://www.mti.gov.sg/NewsRoom/SiteAssets/Pages/New-Board-Member-Appointed-at-International-Enterprise-Singapore/MTI%20press%20release%20on%20board%20change%20IE.pdf
55. Hyflux. (2016). Management team. Retrieved 2016, August 25 from Hyflux website: http://investors.hyflux.com/management.html



The information in this article is valid as at 26 August 2016 and correct as far as we are able to ascertain from our sources. It is not intended to be an exhaustive or complete history of the subject. Please contact the Library for further reading materials on the topic.

 

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